Secondary Sources
Fantini, Mario. "The Ocean Hill: Brownsville Experiment." The Phi Delta Kappan 50.8 (1969):
442-45. Gothamcenter.org. Gotham Center, 6 Oct. 2001. Web. 30 Oct. 2014.
This source is an article which can be located in the Gotham Center for New York City History. It explains the complete history of the Ocean Hill- Brownsville strike of 1968 starting from all the events that led to it in the early 1960’s. This article focuses on the religious aspects of the strike between the Catholics and the Jews, the racial aspects of it between the middle class white people and the lower class black people, and the political aspect between the conservatives and the liberals. However, Fantini’s article mainly focuses on the struggles between the blacks and the Jews. Also, the article offers the new idea that because of the strike the Jews were pitted against each other. It also explains the legacy of the strike, displaying statistics and facts showing the racial bias of the mayoral election after the strike. This source contains very little bias in itself, including facts that support each group against each other during the strike. The article can be very helpful for future research because it provides new ideas to help further enrich the project.
Goldstein, Dana. "The Tough Lessons of the 1968 Teacher Strikes." The Tough Lessons of the 1968 Teacher Strikes. The Nation, 24 Sept. 2014. Web. 03 Mar. 2015.
This source is an article, published in the October issue of “The Nation,” an educational magazine. It was written by Dana Goldstein, who has written countless articles published in many different magazines, such as “The Washington Post,” or the “The American Prospect.” This article discusses the start to end of the strike and how race and religion played a huge role in it. It also shows how the students and parents responded to the strike. Goldstein comments on the different people related to the strike, such as Mayor John Lindsay, Albert Shanker, and Rhody McCoy. Overall, this strike provides a great amount of background information, as well as primary source quotes for the exhibit board.
Kahlenberg, Richard D. "Albert Shanker and the Future Of Teacher Unions."The Phi Delta
Kappan 88.10 (2008): 712-20. JSTOR. Web. 16 Oct. 2014.
This source is an article from the scholarly journal, “The Phi Delta Kappan.” It is written by Richard D. Kahlenberg, who is a senior fellow at the Century Foundation, an organization that provides progressive solutions to domestic and international problems. This article addresses all of Albert Shanker’s main views regarding the education system of New York. Also, Kahlenberg discusses Shanker’s legacy and all of his accomplishments as a union leader and education reformer. This source is a very reliable source. the Phi Delta Kappan is a professional magazine dealing with K-12 education. It also features many articles about classroom practices, policies, and innovations regarding education. This article is very biased. Kahlenberg addresses all the critics of Shanker’s tactics, constantly enforcing his idolizing opinions of Shanker. All in all, this source is very useful because it provides valuable information regarding Albert Shanker.
Kahlenberg, Richard D. "Ocean Hill-Brownsville, 40 Years Later." The Chronicle of Higher
Education 54.22 (2008): B7-B10. ProQuest Education Journals. Web. 30 Oct. 2014.
This source is an article published in a credible journal. It discusses the Ocean Hill- Brownsville strike in depth, starting with how it all began to how it affects New York today. This source also includes Albert Shanker’s role during the strike and why he decided to strike in 1968. This article is very helpful dealing with the legacy of the strike because it discusses how the outcome of the strike is affecting Barack Obama’s decisions today. Also, it deals with the present struggle of liberals because of their position during the strike. Kahlenberg’s article also ties the civil rights movement and Martin Luther King Jr. into the strike. The article is also about the steps that Albert Shanker took in order to call the strike to action and the reasons why he decided to do so. In general, this source is slightly biased, favoring Albert Shanker because it comments on how he overcame all of his troubles and rose above the backlash that he received after the strike was over.
Kahlenberg, Richard, and Halley Potter. "The Original Charter School Vision." The New York
Times. The New York Times, 30 Aug. 2014. Web. 19 Sept. 2014.
Kahlenberg and Potter’s article was extremely informative about Albert Shanker and his relentless support on charter schools. The article addresses Shanker’s view and how he envisioned the future for charter schools to be. Also, the article provides statistics on current charter schools in America such as the percentage of teachers who leave their positions each year. The article’s main goal was to garner up sympathy and support for charter schools, which can be seen in the way that Kahlenberg and Potter presented the strifes and problems that these institutions have faced over the years. Also, the author wrote the article in a chronological order, starting with Shanker’s view of charter school’s, his fight for the acceptance of them from the government, and ending with current problems faced today.
Kahlenberg, Richard D. Tough Liberal: Albert Shanker and the Battles Over Schools, Unions, Race, and Democracy. New York City: Columbia UP, 2007. Print.
This source is a published book written by Richard D. Kahlenberg. It provides a detailed
biography of Albert Shanker, including his role during the Ocean- Hill Brownsville strike. Also, Kahlenberg addresses most of Albert Shanker’s accomplishments and how he became one of the nation’s most prominent education reformers. This book contains bias because it does not feature any bad information against Shanker. It discusses Shanker’s many achievements and has an idolizing tone. This book was beneficial to my project because it provided a lot of basic information about Shanker and how his upbringings led to his decisions about Ocean- Hill Brownsville.
Kifner, John. "Echoes of a New York Waterloo." The New York Times. The New York Times, 21
Dec. 1996. Web. 24 Oct. 2014.
This source is an article published in the New York Times. It discusses the Ocean Hill- Brownsville strike of 1968 in depth starting with how it all began to how it affects education and law today. It also primarily focuses on Albert Shanker’s views and his role during the strike and how he transformed the UFT from a hero to a villain. The author, John Kifner was a senior foreign correspondent for the New York Times. He graduated from Williams College and attended Harvard University. This article addresses how the strike created an everlasting deterioration of black and Jew relations. Also, this source describes current processes being taken by the New York State Legislature to undo the laws and legacies enacted by the Ocean Hill- Brownsville strike. Overall, this source contains limited bias from the author; he only states only information and the usage of quotes to back them up. However, the article includes opinions by others about the legacy of the strike and their thoughts on Albert Shanker. The article, in general, is written objectively and can be a useful source to depict the long legacy of the strike that transformed New York.
"Ocean Hill–Brownsville Teachers′ Strike." Encyclopedia of Activism and Social Justice. Ed.
Gary L. Anderson and Kathryn G. Herr. Vol. 3. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Reference, 2007. 1051-1054. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 29 Oct. 2014.
This source is an article published in the Encyclopedia of Activism and Social Justice. It discusses the start of the Ocean Hill- Brownsville strike of 1968 and how the UFT responded to the injustice. Also, this article addresses the different reactions of the teachers during the strike. The authors, Anderson and Herr, have written many published books togethers dealing with public and controversial topics. In their article, they also focus on the aftermath of the strike, mentioning many different legacies and solutions that resulted from the strike. This source contains limited bias, stating facts that only help support the article; not ones that support an argument. The article, in general, can be useful to describe the long lasting legacy and many factors that played in the outcome of the strike.
"Originalpeople.org." Originalpeopleorg. WordPress, 15 Nov. 2012. Web. 17 Dec. 2014.
This source is an electronically published article. It includes information about the Ocean
Hill- Brownsville strike’s background and aftermath. It is organized in chronological order, starting with the background, to during the strikes, to the result and aftermath. This article is very helpful to my project because it provides basic information about the strike to help further enhance the information already provided.
Podair, Jerald E. “After the Crisis: Race and Memory,” “Ocean Hill- Brownsville, New York,
America.” The Strike That Changed New York. Durham: Yale UP, 2008.183-214. Print.
This section deals with primarily the aftermath of the strike of 1968. It discusses how community control in black neighborhoods was replaced by a decentralization structure. Also, this section discusses how the Ocean Hill- Brownsville strike damaged Shanker’s image and how black New York saw the UFT and Shanker as enemies. Podair also gives information about how the strike affected the economy and how racial problems led to the fiscal crisis. The strike also affected the politics of New York during the mayoral elections in 1969. The final chapter of the book discusses all the main points of the strike and mentions why the black community demanded community control at all. Podair writes about the racial problems in New York today and how that was the cause of the strike, discussing the lasting legacy.
Podair, Jerald E. “‘Black’ Values, ‘White’ Values: Race and Culture in New York City During
the 1960s,” “The Ocean Hill- Brownsville Community Control Experiment.” The Strike That Changed New York. Durham: Yale UP, 2008.48-102. Print.
This section deals with the cultural and racial aspect of the strike, contrasting the high class white people and low class black people who lived in Ocean- Hill at the time. It also discusses all the failed efforts taken by the UFT to fix ghetto schools and benefit black students such as the MES, or More Effective Schools. This section also mentions the many important people from both sides of the strike. This second part of the section includes a part on Albert Shanker and his views on community control. Podair also explains the vigorous system that was used to select a principal and other positions for the Ocean Hill- Brownsville local board. Finally, this section deals with the UFT’s negative stance on community control and how the school spiraled out of control multiple times such as the receiving the news of Martin Luther King Jr’s death. These two chapters feature primary source photos featuring teachers and students of the school.
Podair, Jerald. "Justice, Justice: School Politics and the Eclipse of Liberalism." Afro-Americans
in New York Life and History 31.2 (2007): n. pag. Nyc.gov. Afro-American Historical Association of the Niagara Frontier. Web. 30 Oct. 2014.
This source is an article published the the journal of Afro- Americans in New York Life and History. It discusses the Ocean Hill- Brownsville strike and how it affected the African American and white population in New York at the time. However, this article also explains how the nineteen dismissed teachers were actually stand ins for a larger issue: liberalism. This article focuses on how the strike was a clash between different ideologies and religions rather than races or the abuse of power. This source also discusses the shadow of the strike that still looms over New York public school’s today. This source is slightly biased, focusing on mainly the rise and fall liberalism during the strike. This article can be very helpful because it provides a second viewpoint to the Ocean Hill- Brownsville incident.
Podair, Jerald E. "May 9, 1968." Introduction. The Strike That Changed New York. Durham:
Yale UP, 2008. 1-8. Print.
The introduction of Podair’s book explains the main idea of the Ocean Hill- Brownsville strike generally. It includes an anecdote of Fred Nauman, one of the eighteen teachers fired during the time. It tells the story from Nauman’s point of view and then shifts to Rhody McCoy’s, the unit administrator for the Ocean Hill- Brownsville district. The introduction deals with the different aspects of the strike, including religion, race inequality, and the clash of cultures. This source contains bias because it tells Nauman’s case with a sympathetic tone and McCoy’s case with judgement and a sense of ridicule. This introduction is extremely helpful to the reader because it shows the two different sides behind the strike.
Podair, Jerald E. “The Strikes,” “Like Strangers: The Third Strike and Beyond,” “ Culture War”.
The Strike That Changed New York. Durham: Yale UP, 2008.103-182. Print.
This section deals with the three strikes that occurred and how they they were all settled.
Podair describes the first two strikes in one chapter and the third strike in another one. Podair gives information about each strike and the reasons for which Shanker decided to call a strike again and again. Podair goes the most in depth with the third strike because it was the most bitter out of all of them. The third strike included the rest of New York City including outer- borough Jews and black intellectuals. Podair also names a few organizations that took sides during the third strike such as the Protestant Council of New York City and the American Civil Liberties Union. In this section, Podair includes an article written by UFT member Patrick Harnett and many primary source articles depicting the strike and the City Hall Rally. Finally, this section discusses the outcome of the strike and how this strike increased Shanker’s increase in political status.
Podair, Jerald E. "Two New Yorks, The Rise of Community." The Strike That Changed New
York. Durham: Yale UP, 2008. 9-47. Print.
The first chapter of Podair’s book discusses the New Yorks drastic change from a working- class city to a middle- class one within the span of 1945 to 1965. Podair mainly focuses on the difference of the way the whites and blacks were living at the time. He ties this contrast into the Ocean- Hill Brownsville crisis by stating that it was of the reasons for the strike. The first chapter mainly includes information between 1945 and 1965 during New York’s economy shift from manufacturing to one centered around self industries and government. This chapter also discusses the religious barriers in New York between the Jews and the Catholics and how the constant power struggles of all aspects affected the black education system during this time. The first chapter could be very helpful for information regarding New York before the strike and why the strike was called.
The second chapter discusses the idea of community control in public schools. It discusses all of the events that led to the need for community control such as the New York City Board of Education’s failed plans to place black and white children the same classrooms. The second chapter also focuses on the PAT’s (Queens- based Parents and Taxpayers) response to the failures and their call for change. In conclusion, Podair discusses the segregation within public schools of New York and the UFT’s negative responses to the calls for community control. The first two chapters contain limited bias stating facts and point of views of different people on both sides of the strike. In conclusion, the first two chapters of Podair’s book are about the many factors that led up to the strike of 1968.
Primary Sources
1968. Walter P. Reuther Library, Detroit. Walter P. Reuther Library. Web. 7 Feb. 2015.
This is an image of younger students protesting the incident of the Ocean- Hill Brownsville district. Their signs are beneficial to my project because it shows how the UFT thought the community controlled schools were run back then, which was by mob rule.
Albert Shanker, Bayard Rustin. 1970. Walter P. Reuther Library, Detroit. Walter P. Reuther
Library. Web. 15 Jan. 2015.
This shows Albert Shanker striking with Bayard Rustin in support of collective bargaining rights. This shows that Albert Shanker was a part of the civil rights movement, because Bayard Rustin was an American leader for civil rights.
Albert Shanker Being Released from Jail. 1967. Walter P. Reuther Library, Detroit. Walter P.
Reuther Library. Web. 11 Feb. 2015.
This photo shows Albert Shanker being released from jail. This is helpful towards my project because it shows what obstacles Shanker faced because of his roles in the strike.
Albert Shanker Giving a Speech. N.d. Walter P. Reuther Library, Detroit.Walter P.
Reuther Library. Web. 13 Jan. 2015.
This is an image of Albert Shanker giving a speech to his followers. This displays Shanker’s leadership at the time, which is beneficial to my project.
Albert Shanker, New York City, New York. 1968. Walter P. Reuther Library, Detroit. Walter P.
Reuther Library. Web. 24 Jan. 2015.
This shows Albert Shanker as he leads his UFT troops in a rally during the strike. This shows Shanker’s leadership and how hundreds of people gathered in his support.
Albertin, Walter. Albert Shanker, Pres of U.F.T. Holds Report Issued by Mediators to
Mayor Robert Wagner That Helped to Stop Strike Threat of Teachers. 1965. Library of Congress, Washington D.C. Loc.gov. Web. 13 Jan. 2015.
This shows Albert Shanker holding a report directed to Mayor Robert Wagner to stop the strike threat of teachers. This image shows Shanker’s leadership and his important role in the strike.
Bottega, John. Lindsay Speaking at City Hall in January 1966. Library of Congress, Washington
D.C. Web. 12 Jan. 2015.
This photograph shows John Lindsay speaking at City Hall on January 1966. It is a full
length portrait and features Lindsay sitting behind a desk with microphones of radio shows and television networks. This shows that Mayor Lindsay was a part of the strike and that people were listening to what he had to say.
Brooklyn Photos. 1968. USA Today Photos. USA Today. Web. 24 Jan. 2015.
Students walk out of Junior High School 271 in the troubled Ocean Hill-Brownsville
experimental school district . This shows the environment of schools at the time: crowded and hectic. This will help with the background section of my project.
Confrontation: United Federation of Teachers and Community. 1968. New York University
Archives, New York. NYU. Web. 24 Jan. 2015.
This photo shows the Ocean Hill Brownsville board’s confrontation with the UFT
members on strike. This shows the hostility at the district and schools at the time. This is useful to my project because it shows the race relations of the people.
Delinder, Jean V. Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka. 1954. National Archives, Washington
D.C. National Archives. Web. 11 Feb. 2015.
This is an image of a newspaper article written at the time of the Brown v. Board ruling which declared that segregation in public schools was illegal. This is helpful to my project because it shows that the local boards were unjust in their transferring of the white teachers.
Fred Nauman Is Blocked by Demonstrators outside Junior High School 271 in Brooklyn after
Nauman and Four Others Were "dismissed." 1968, Walter P. Reuther Library, Detroit. Walter P. Reuther Library.
This image displays Fred Nauman, one of the teachers who was transferred out of the district, trying to enter his school, but being blocked by Sonny Carson, a controversial activist. This is helpful to my project because it shows the hostile race relations at the time of the strike.
Higgins, Roger. Brownsville Market, Belmont Avenue, Brooklyn, New York. 1962. Library of
Congress, Washington D.C. Library of Congress. Web. 9 Feb. 2015.
This photo shows the neighborhood of Ocean- Hill Brownsville before the strikes. This
photo is biased because it takes shows a very dirty and poor side of Brooklyn. It is helpful to my project because it shows that the schools were not in a good neighborhood.
Jacoby, Tamar. Fred Nauman Is Blocked by Demonstrators outside Junior High School
271 in Brooklyn after Nauman and Four Others Were "dismissed." 1968. Walter P. Reuther Library, Detroit. Walter P. Reuther Library.Web. 9 Jan. 2015
This photograph shows Sonny Carson, a black activist at the time who established the
local governing boards that dismissed the 11 white educators. The image depicts Fred Nauman, one of the dismissed teachers, being blocked by demonstrators outside JHS 271 in Brooklyn.
Kalver, Richard. Brooklyn. Ocean Hill/Brownsville. 1967. Walter P. Reuther Library, Detroit.
Walter P. Reuther Library. Web. 7 Feb. 2015.
This photo shows a man digging through trash in Ocean- Hill Brownsville. This shows the conditions of the district before the strike which is helpful to my project.
Kalver, Richard. Brooklyn. Ocean Hill/Brownsville. 1969. Walter P. Reuther Library, Detroit.
Walter P. Reuther Library. Web. 7 Feb. 2015.
This is an image of white UFT members blocking the school doors to prevent students or
teachers from entering. This shows the drastic measures that the UFT went through to get
there point across. This is beneficial to my project because it shows that some teachers still went to their schools after the strike which provoked the physical blockade of the men.
Kalver, Richard. Teacher and kids. 1969.Walter P. Reuther Library, Detroit. Walter P. Reuther
Library. Web. 7 Feb. 2015.
The teachers who were transferred were soon reinstated back into their schools. This is
helpful towards the legacy portion of my project because it shows that the UFT were successful.
Kalver, Richard. Ocean Hill Brownsville. 1969. Walter P. Reuther Library, Detroit.
Walter P. Reuther Library. Web. 24 Jan. 2015.
This picture shows black protesters who are opposing the UFT. This is important to the
antithesis portion of my project because it shows that not all people thought that the UFT’s ways were effective.
King Gives a Speech in 1964. 1964. Library of Congress, Washington D.C. Web. 15
Jan. 2015.
This image shows a portrait of Martin Luther King Jr. King was a personal friend of
Albert Shanker, and supported him during the Ocean Hill Brownsville crisis. This is beneficial to my project because it shows that Shanker had the support of the civil rights union.
King, Martin L. "Telegram from MLK to Albert Shanker." Letter to Albert Shanker. 13 Sept.
1967. The King Center. N.p., n.d. Web. 9 Dec. 2014.
This was a telegram sent to Albert Shanker from Martin Luther King Jr. In the telegram, King is endorsing Shanker and praising all of the teachers in the New York Community. This is useful to my project because it shows how the black society reacted to Shanker’s decision to call a strike.
Members of the Ocean Hill-Brownsville Local School Governing Board Leaving
Brooklyn Junior High School 271. 1968. Walter P. Reuther Library, Detroit.
Walter P. Reuther Library.Web. 13 Jan. 2015.
This photograph shows members of the Ocean Hill governing board leaving Brooklyn
Junior High School 271. It was taken on December 2, 1968. This is important to my project because it shows the obvious racial preference within the board because all of the administrators are black. The image also shows police officers standing on the sidelines watching the men exiting the school.
Principal Rhody A. McCoy. 1968. Bettmann Archives, New York. Corbis Images. Web. 28 Feb.
2015.
This is an image of Principal Rhody A. McCoy, who was the unit administrator of the
Ocean Hill Brownsville district. This is beneficial to the antithesis portion of my project because some people believed that what McCoy did was right.
Rustin, Bayard. "Telegram from Bayard Rustin to MLK." Letter to Martin Luther King Jr. 20
Dec. 1967. The King Center. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 Dec. 2014.
This source, although not written or received by Shanker, it does pertain to him. This telegram is from Bayard Rustin to Martin Luther King Jr. asking for money to pay Shanker’s jail fine. Shanker is in jail for violating the Anti-Labor Taylor Act. This is useful to my project because it shows the price that Shanker paid for his strikes.
Sauro, William E. Albert Shanker, Center, the President of the United Federation of
Teachers, Leading a 1968 Rally at City Hall. 1968. New York Times, New York. The New York Times. Web. 9 Jan. 2015.
This photograph shows Albert Shanker leading a rally at New York City Hall. It shows Shanker’s supporters and the signs that they were holding at the time. This also shows how Albert Shanker was treated by the people of New York as a hero or savior based on their expressions which is useful to my project.
Shanker, Albert. "Letter from Frederick Koury and Albert Shanker to MLK." Letter to Martin
Luther King Jr. 10 Feb. 1968. The King Center. N.p., n.d. Web. 9 Dec. 2014.
This is a letter from Albert Shanker to Martin Luther King Jr. In the letter, Shanker is inviting Luther to an Annual Spring Conference Luncheon. They are honoring Bayard Rustin, who was going to receive the John Dewey Award. This letter is helpful to my project because it shows that Albert Shanker was in contact with Martin Luther King Jr, a civil rights leader.
Shanker, Albert. "Telegram from UFT President Albert Shanker to MLK." Letter to Martin
Luther King Jr. 13 Sept. 1967. The King Center. N.p., n.d. Web. 9 Dec. 2014.
This is a telegram from Albert Shanker to Martin Luther King Jr, thanking him for all his
support in the UFT’s strikes. This telegram is useful to my project because it shows all of Shanker’s beliefs and hopes for the future which he expresses to Martin Luther. It also mentions the accomplishment of the UFT by establishing committee of teachers.
Shanker, Albert. "Western Union Telegram from Albert Shanker to MLK." Letter to
Martin Luther King Jr. 14 Sept. 1967. The King Center. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 Dec. 2014.
This is a telegram addressed to Martin Luther King Jr. from Albert Shanker. In this telegram, he is agreeing with King’s ideas and reassuring him that the teachers will not teach until the strike is resolved. Also, Shanker is asking for King’s support and help in creating a program that determines what will get the teachers to resume teaching. This telegram is very useful to my project because it shows how teachers were also responding to the strike.
Teachers Vote Strike in the New York City School Districts. 1968. Walter P. Reuther Library,
Detroit.Walter P. Reuther Library.Web. 9 Dec. 2014.
This photograph displays an image of Albert Shanker leading a group of teachers who are voting for whether or not they want to go to strike. It shows members of the UFT raising their hands, in favor of a strike and Albert Shanker at the head of it all on the platform. This photo is very useful because it shows Albert Shanker’s leadership of a large number of people.
The Tough Lessons of the 1968 Teacher Strikes. 1968. The Nation. By Dana Goldstein. Web. 9
Jan. 2015.
This photograph shows the treatment of the students and teachers at JHS 271 in Ocean Hill– Brownsville on December 3, 1968. It shows police officers blocking the doors to prevent anybody from entering the school. This is useful to my project because it shows how bad the strikes were that there needed to be police officers present.
UFT President Albert Shanker and Bayard Rustin at Rally. 1968. Walter P. Reuther Library,
Detroit.Walter P. Reuther Library.Web. 9 Dec. 2014.
This photograph displays an image of Albert Shanker leading about 15,000 teachers in a
rally at New York City Hall after the Board of Education had not complied to the UFT’s demands. This photograph shows the signs that the teachers were holding at the time showing what they wanted. This photo is very useful to my project because it shows Albert Shanker’s leadership role in the strike.
Why Weren't Your Schools Open Today? 1968. Library of Congress, Washington D.C. Library of
Congress. Web. 11 Feb. 2015.
This is a flier given out to citizens to promote the City Rally. It is biased because it was
written by UFT members, and used to convince people to side with the teachers.
Original Sources
"Jerald Podair." Telephone interview. 14 Jan. 2015.
I interviewed Jerald Podair, an author of a book on the Ocean- Hill Brownsville strike.
We exchanged a few emails and decided upon a date for a phone interview, with which I recorded his answers. I used many of his quotes on my actual board. His answers were very detailed which gave me an even better understanding of the strike. It also provided me with the legacy of the strike.
"Richard D. Kahlenberg." E-mail interview. 5 Jan. 2015.
For my project, I contacted Richard D. Kahlenberg, who wrote a book all about my
strike. I asked him questions about the background of the strike and his personal opinions about it over email. This interview was helpful to my project because it gave me a better understanding of the strike’s history and how race was a factor.
